Sniffers, A Project Managers Hip Pocket Tool

As project managers working in IT, having a grasp of simple activities and practices goes a long way in understanding the complexity behind many projects and how things are inter-related. Sniffers are one of those simple little things that can have a major impact on a project as they provide a wide breadth of information about a web application's users and environment. This information can be useful across a breadth activities within an organization.

Let us look at the use of sniffers when writing mobile code. Sniffers sense the environmental conditions. Information collected should be used to properly route the web application to code that accounts for the environmental conditions. Sometimes that means simply adapting dynamically to the qualities like screen width. At other times, code has to account for browser differences. For example, some browsers and versions support features like Geolocation and other do not.

I have scripted a sniffer to detect the current environmental conditions as Blogger would permit, Table 1. The Blogger web application does not allow full featured clientside javascript and removes or blocks some code statements. In the sniffer code, logic detects the environmental conditions in Internet Explorer, Safari, Chrome, Opera, and Firefox routing the results to the tabular output. Geolocation is tricky and does not execute is all browser versions and may not post results or error results in some browsers and versions. Please try reviewing this post in multiple browsers and platforms (iPad, iPod, PC, MacBooks).

SNIFFER RESULTS
Device
Screen Resolution
Client Resolution
Java Enabled
Cookies Enabled
Colors
GEOLOCATION

Table 1: Sniffer Results

Embedding sniffer code into web applications and storing the results in a database can yield valuable histories. Project managers planning and coordinating projects, whether writing a web application or conducting some other IT related project, must be able to have an understanding of the environmental situation. Almost always there are anomalies. The use of sniffers can provide valuable information back to the project manager before issues arise.

Sniffers are one of the hip pocket tools that can provide important information. Installing and tracking sniffer data over time can show progress, effects, and flush out the anomalies before they become problems.

Argumentation: Parts to Whole, Comparisons, and Correlations

Argumentation: The Study of Effective Reasoning

Commentary: This is a series on effective reasoning as it applies to project management. Using proper argumentation in a project while vetting risk, options, objectives, strategies, and workaround solutions can strengthen a project's performance, improve communications, and develop a sense of unity. Effective argumentations comes down to building the strongest case for a claim. In this series I will be summarizing points made by David Zarefsky in his Teaching Company coursework as well as drawing on other resources.   This series of posts may be reviewed at the Argumentation Series Posts link.

The next six sessions focus on inferences. I'll be compressing them into two postings and try to keep them down in length.  Inferences are the most complex part of an argument and determine the scheme that will be used.  There are six inference patterns that we will consider. 

Reasoning From Parts to the Whole

When reasoning from parts to the whole inferences are made which is a leap in knowledge when information is missing. Because information is missing there is a degree of certainty of a claim given its   evidence. Inferences affect arguments as they are often organized by their patterns of influence. The six inference patterns are example, analogy, sign, cause, commonplaces, and form with some hybrid combinations. This allows us to explore major argument schemes asking some fundamental questions:

• What is the inference and does it work?
• What are the test to determine the strength of an inference?

A warrant from example, that is arguing from parts to the whole, is illustrated in President's Roosevelt's war message on December 8, 1941. he began by listing many examples of Japan's simultaneous attacks on different nations. Then made a claim that Japan has undertaken a surprise offensive throughout the Pacific inferring that what is true of the part applies to the whole. Finally, Roosevelt inferred that Japan had intentions of war.

If the enumeration were complete then the argument would be deductive with 100% certainty. Instead, generalizations are used to make inferences from an example to the whole or general. The inference is that what is true of the part is true of the whole. These generalizations are drawn from one of two patterns; statistical or anecdotal. The statistical is probabilistic and is drawn from a sample of the whole population. Whereas the anecdotal is representative of tests, examples, representativeness, and counterexamples in volume or even the lack of these things. All generalizations should be tested for fallacy of composition.

Classification uses the inference from examples to derive a specific application based on general principles.  This approach is reversed from generalizations. Classifications go from what is true of the whole must be true of the part.  Once again there is a degree of uncertainty in order to make the inference. The effect of classification is to increase the salience of an abstract or general claim by making it more concrete.  The tests for classification are:

• Does the particular member really belong in the general class?
• Are there reasons to think that the particular member is an exceptional case, so that the general principle might not apply?

Any classification also should be tested for the fallacy of division.

Reasoning With Comparisons

One common form of inference is that like things should be treated alike. This is the reasoning behind analogy which can be literal or figurative. Inferences from analogies are based on comparisons and resemblances. Thus, with respect to the topic under discussion the inference will make one thing like the other through induction.

Literal analogies are direct comparisons of objects, events, situations, places, and other items in the same sphere of reality. The inference warrants that if they are alike in the most basic respects then they are alike in the respects under discussion. literal analogies identify parallel cases then derive guidelines for action. Most often literal analogies reason from similar historical situations.

There are two special cases of literal analogies. The judicial analogy is a special case literal analogy. This is used in legal cases arguing that preceding cases have decided the current case. It is also used as a rule of conduct arguing that previous conduct applies to the current situation. The other special case literal analogy is a fortiori. This special case suggests that what is true of the lesser is even more true of the greater and likewise what is false of the greater is even more false of the lesser. This is known 'super-analogy' because it compares things that are largely alike but that differ in magnitude.

Figurative analogies are comparisons between relationships of objects, events, places, and situations rather than comparisons of the things themselves. Typically, the items compared are in different spheres of reality arguing A is to B (known as the theme) as C is to D (known as the phoros). The theme relates to terms of the claim. Whereas, the phoros contains the better known terms of the analogy. The warrant then links the theme to the phoros relating the terms. figurative analogies attempt to clarify or make concrete ideas.

Analogies require careful testing since resemblances are not identities and analogies are never certain. The test is simple. Do the essential similarities outweigh the essential differences between the items being compared? Thus, a false analogy is one that fails this test.

Establishing Correlations

Correlations focus on sign inferences which establish a relationship between two factors in such a way that one con be determined from the other. Sign inferences are not causal and them in their self do not constitute the relationship. These inferences are fallible and depend on probability. They are used to infer the known from the unknown by predicting outcomes and relying on expert judgments.

Sign inferences involve correlations, patterns, occurrences, or changes that vary in relation to each other. The basics are that something can be predicted from the occurrence of another thing. Aristotle distinguished between fallible and the infallible stating that if something were infallible then it would be certain and deductive. Thus, fallible signs inferences are probabilistic having a possibility of being mistaken. The warrant implies a predictable relationship between the variables. Sign inferences assert a predictable relationship between variables but do not account for the relationship. Thus a sign is less powerful than a causal inference. the prototype case or model for a sign relationship is that the surface observations is regarded as a sign of something deeper.

The purpose of a sign segment serves a variety of uses. For example, they infer the known from the unknown. They predict outcomes when it is not necessary to reason the outcomes. They also rely on the judgments of experts or authorities. The test for signs are a series of questions.

• Does the sign and the subject generally appear together?
• Are there any counter signs?
• Can a sign signify other things; opposite or different?
• Is there a basis for the relationship other than mere coincidence?
• Has the relationship been mistakenly regarded as causal?

Commentary: As a project manager, understanding how to reason and communicate is essential to avoiding problems especially in contractual and purchase order agreements. A challenge is to overcome innuendo, ambiguity, and uncertainty ensuring clear and concise communications. In complex projects or where progress elaboration is present justifications, reasoning, and defining needs may be uncertain to some degree. During the initiation phase of a project this problem is often more prevalent.  It is not uncommon for project managers to pull project histories from the PERL database or other databases to give a basis for inferring requirements, objectives, and other project details.  Educated guesses are made and contracts must be written in ways permissive of the range of possible outcomes when certainty is elusive. 

Next week I will condense three more sessions into a single post. Moving this series towards the conclusion.

References:

Zarefsky, D. (2005) Argumentation: the study of effective reasoning. 2nd Ed. the Teaching Company. Chantilly, VA

The Art of Profitability Brief

Commentary: Profitability, at times, may seem to be elusive. Professionals, business artisans, become caught up in planning the operations and financials. Business models and plans are created. Cool ideas surface and a euphoria grips everyone as the attention increases on these efforts. Somehow the organization finds itself focused on activities that do not derive the revenues streams originally thought. Revenue begins to slump and the organizations spins to generate solutions that become marginal at producing improvements. Cost increase forcing unpopular decisions. The underlying question is how can an organization shift into high gear driving resultant profitability?

This post has received over 500 reads. Please feel free to send me an email with your thoughts. James.bogden@gmail.com.  

Readers may desire to also read the post on Making Money With Social Media

Figure 1

The book "The Art of Profitability" offers a refresher by focusing on how a business makes money, Figure 1. Before we start into the crux of this brief, I want to focus a little on the underpinnings of capital business and tactics.

We will begin at the top. There are many philosophies and thoughts on this subject. For this discussion, the CEO's principle focus is looking outward from an organization developing vision, strategies, and exploiting cheap sources of capital to facilitate strategic money making projects. A business's organizational leadership then seeks tactical advantage in a variety of ways to implement these strategic projects. These tactical advantages may include disruptive technologies, hedging markets, price switching, controlling the supply points to name a few. The following discussion will illustrate how these and other tactics work in favor of or define the Profit model. I will also discuss how projects may be affected by the models.

PROFIT MODELS

Adrienne Slywotzky, the author, presents his thoughts on profit models in a story line dialogue style giving examples and discussing solutions to challenging questions. He claims these are the only ways a business makes money. Understanding these models and which apply can propel a business further. I summarized this dialogue into a list that follows. Each explanation will be brief in order to keep this post to a reasonable size. The book is referenced and will provide greater understanding if you so desire. 

1. Customer Solution Profit: This model will always apply without regard to other models employed as it applies to all business. It is typically characteristic of professional service consulting such as engineering, legal, accounting, software development, and other like disciplines. The consultant becomes intimately familiar with the client and their operations. Then they provide highly customized services or products. Comment: Projects under this model are labor and capital intensive in the first third and tend to taper off as the project matures into the second and third phases. Often this model's deliverables are stabilized then moved into a production or operational and maintenance life cycle phases. This kind of project is usually a one time effort overall.

2. Pyramid Profit: Under this model, stratified product/service lines have low priced marginally profitable firewall products/services guarding high dollar cash cows. This creates a barrier to market entry. For example, low priced barbie dolls flood the market and are toys for young girls. Then higher end dolls are released costing over 500% more for an adult market. Comment: Project managers working on pyramid profit models may be focused on one segment of this model. Project objectives should focus on supporting the other segments as well as the overall strategy. 

3. Multi-Component Profit: Base products in this model spawn other purchases where profit is derived. For example, buying a car or home then accessorizing it. The old stereo systems operated under this model having integrable components. 

4. Switchboard Profit: One stop packaged complimentary product/services often combined with controlling mass causing limited competition. The market has to turn to one vendor. Comment: This is indicative of the oligopoly and monopoly phenomenon. However, this can result from limited players in a specific market too. Microsoft and Apple operating systems are on this model. Project managers may find themself closely coupled to one product line with austere limits on work around solutions as the product is closely coupled or integrated with the switchboard. 

5. Time Profit: This is characterized by the volume of effort per unit of time as well as the amount of time profitability is possible. A test question is does a mountain need to be moved or a small pile shoveled? The bigger question is can money be made before obsolescence or margins fall away? The model has very short life cycle products typically. Comment: An example of time profit is the microprocessor industry. Some financial thinkers who operate on durable competitive advantage would consider companies like Intel or AMD very risky with large recurring research and development budgets and a short window to recoup costs. Companies like RONCO and other 'As seen On TV' products are less risky with low investments, short profit intervals as short as 30 days, and wide market appeal. Project managers may be involved in product development and market cycles that are recurring as short as every 60 days. 

6. Block Buster Profit: This model requires strong team of interdisciplinary experts positioned to take the market. Investments are usually very high and speculative. For example movie making which is considered to be speculative investment given its high risk and uncertain market response. Comment: The industry has sought to make the process turnkey by identifying successful patterns and story lines then vary the characters, settings, and themes. Project managers may be focused at different levels of the production process.

7. Quality Profit: This model is focused on increasing the margin by designing quality into the process that eliminates steps, trims costs, and improves customer satisfaction through greater durability. Comment: Organizations have looked to operations management standards and methodologies such ISO, TQM, lean, and Six Sigma to achieve the desired results in quality projects. Project managers operating in this model must shift from a PMI methodology which has a start and end date to a Continuous improvement methodology. Although many of the PMI processes still apply and the continuous improvement projects can have a start and end date. 

8. Field Force Morale Profit: This is a managed sales force who are focused and knowledgeable having strong performance based pay. Typically, sales or marketing projects have focused markets with achievable goals. Product/service markups are exceptional large. For example, the jewelry industry. 

9. Profit Multiplier/Enhancer Profit: Products/services are spun off to many similar but off markets that improves economies of scale and odds of success. Products/services that are profit multipliers often are not profitable on their own but when combined with other products or services have the effect of increasing profits greater than the sum of individual products/services. Profit enhancers often are not profitable on their own either but when combined with switchboard products and services as well as other niche products or services that are profitable the combination has a summing effect on profits. 

10. Specialist Profit: This is a profit zone that is highly targeted, focused, or unique that is exploited for profit because of specialized knowledge. This requires high market recognition for talent. Some of common characteristics are lower cost through better knowledge; better price through unique design / better offering; improves or shortens selling cycle; rapid penetration due to wired effect; windfall profits due to replication of specialized knowledge (high value answers) through out the marketplace.

11. Entrepreneurial Profit: This model relies on frugality or common sense profit seeking activity. This is the ability to put into practice good ideas or leverage off what works then make better. Usually high pressure and engaged workforce. There is a sense of thrill. These projects are highly focused having specified objectives with planned egress or alternatives to adjust to risk. Comment: Often entrepreneurial project managers have to make gut decisions and possess excellent negotiating skills.

12. Installed Base Profit: This model creates demand and continuing demand for products and services. Entry   or installed base products have a high price, many choices on initial purchase and low price, no choice on consumables. For example, furnace-filters; vacuum-bag; printer-ink. Comment: Project managers involved in this kind of profit model are engaged mostly on the design, development and implementation of the base before handing off the project to operations to track the projects performance.

13. Brand Profit: This model is based on assumptions, cumulative impact (history), and the triumph of irrational behavior for profit in a hyper-rational market. In other words, the buyer purchases something for irrational reasons and the producer profits from this conduct. The irrational behavior affects product pricing which is founded on reputation, image, prestige, etc… Although, often the quality, design, materials, and manufacturing processes are nearly identical. For example beer such as Michelob (after work professional), Budweiser (blue collar), and Iron City (low income) are chemical identical but exude different prestige. Bottom line is that advertising spending drives market share. High share early on means higher shares in the future. Examples of this are cigarettes and credit cards in youth expands life time market / profits. “Shared Determining Segment”, SDS, is critical to building brand and hyper methods exist for building brand that center on more efficient ways of investing marketing dollars. For example, better channel positions, message, in general better focus. Comment: Project managers involved in Brand Profit generally are involved in marketing studies and campaigns. The work packages seek to brand the product or service by conducting 360 sixty degree marketing campaigns or perhaps commercials that seek to grab attention through clever humorous snippets as at the Superbowl half time show.

14. Specialty Product Profit: High, double and triple figure with margins based on discovery and risk. Requires ongoing / sufficiently numerous discoveries to remain profitable. Less than 20% of the discoveries come from commodity products and over 80% of the discoveries are from uniquely patented specialty products. Products usually have a short life cycle before shifting to a life cycle maintenance program having single digit margins. This is different from blockbuster profit model which requires wide market share. Specialty product model focuses on a narrow market niche. Comment: For example, the topsy tail hair accessory sold $100 million in one year before the market was saturated. This can be coupled with the Time Profit model. For example, many of RONCO's products solve a unique or special problem.

15. Local Leadership Profit: Given a national or international presence, local leadership tailors pricing/services/products to local market. Starbucks focused on cities while Walmart focused on counties using the same model.

16. Value Chain Position Profit: Power is concentrated in a few players in value train. Pre-existing control points do not exist. Control points are based on or the trajectory of relative value added. A radical shift in control points usually occurs due to changes in technology. Comment: For example, the emergence of a disruptive technology would yield power to the one who exploits it first.

17. Cycle Profit: This model is most commonly viewed incorrectly as it is centered on the supply and demand concepts of supply side macro economics. The bottom line is that companies should realize and know the economic, seasonality, and trend cycles of their niche. Comment: Designing operations to drive the break even points to match or occur below the low side of the trends, seasonality, or economic cycles companies can remain profitable in the worst of times.  I'll demonstrate using using the current circumstances and one viewpoint. Beginning in the late 1990's the economy began experiencing an 80 year cycle of transitioning economies marked by a boom, bust, and war. The 'Dot Com' boom was followed by a bust that began to show signs in 2006.  This cycling was anticipated and discussed in a variety of marketing and political works as early as 1990. For example, in 1998 Harry S Dent discussed long term economic and political trends in his book "The Roaring 2000's". In the 1992 book "The Clash of Civilizations", Samuel Huntington discussed how economically coupled nations and those left out would lead to conflict. Jessica Stern gives a case in her 2003 book "Terror in the Name of God" that severe economic differentials between the nation of Israel and the Palestinian settlements have created hopelessness that has resulted in conflict. One political thought is an effort to elevate the economy with these despondent people in order to bring dignity to thier lives. The business minded will anticipate these long standing cycles and design for them. In terms of project management, the cycle is a project that should have specific objectives and outcomes for the business. 

18. Experience Curve Profit: This model has the cost falling with increases in cumulative production experience. A company can become more profitable without increases in revenue simply because the resultant direct and indirect cost fall. Close to market share profit model where economies of scale reduce cost versus the Experience Curve Profit where managing/reducing operating cost increase profits. Although both benefit from having a large market share.

19. Low Cost Business Design Profit: Often this model is part of a larger scheme and compliments other models by trading off a peripheral vision with a focused vision because a different thought process is required in the life cycle of a product. Early on other profit models may be stronger to employ but as a product matures the organization must restructure its profit model in order to remain competitive. This model centers on anticipation versus reaction since patterns tend to cyclically repeat. It looks to optimize cost by designing in trends, seasonality, and recessionary times as well as product/service maturity cycles.

20. Relative market Share: Traditional method of creating profitability. The company obtains the largest share of the market possible. This is accomplished different ways such as product/brand saturation, creating barriers to entry, and controlling the supply points.

21. Transaction Scale Profit: Profit is based of size of the transactions. High volume and low dollar equates to big profits. Staff should concentrate efforts and seek the big accounts. Often they may turn away small work when seeking the big job. This is usually based on great relationships and can take long periods of time. For example, Walmart purchases extremely large amounts of product at very low prices. Because of Walmarts dominant position they often command the relationship, pricing, and other details to its advantage.

22. New Product Profit: This model is based on planned obsolescence and the product life cycle curve. Profitability is created in the first half of the life cycle given a few basic rules. 1. Over invest in the first half of the cycle by 3x. 2. Then under-invest in the later half of the cycle by 3x. 3. In fact, begin to divest. The leadership must admit reality and that the parabola is real, scout for the inflection point, and then ready for the next wave of hits. Comment: For example, many manufacturers attempt to invigorate mature products with the "New and Improved" or "20% More" tactics.

23. Defacto Standard Profit: Profitability is derived from being the market leader and setting the standard. Advertising and marketing cost are reduced because of high market recognition that demands the use of one product over the others. For example, Microsoft’s operating system is the driven standard.

24. After Sale Profit: This model has price sensitivity based on the initial ticket price. High cost ticket items equate to slim margins and increasing price sensitivity. Low cost ticket items equate to wide margins and decreasing price sensitivity. The one exception to this model is when demand is high then price sensitivity becomes negligible. In this model the manufacturer locks in profitability by closing the initial sale with low margins or even at a loss knowing that the purchaser must come to him later for follow on support, services, and products where profit is derived. For example, auto sales; accessories, repair parts, and service often accompany the sale. The customer often fails to realize the real cost associated with the purchase and buys based on a lack of information or on emotion.

25. Digital profit: This profit model often associates information with profitability. Moving from conventional operations, known as brick-and-mortar, to virtual operations can reduce cost by 100 fold and increase profitability by 10 percentage points. This model does not work well on its own. A solid business plan must be in place coupling to other profit models. Comment: The three different successful types of digital profit models are Amazon, EBay, and Eddie Bauer. Amazon developed as an aggregator of products. Ebay is an online auction house that went from the digital to brick and mortar. Eddie Bauer successfully coupled manufacturing schedules with online sales. Other emerging model types may include information mediaries like Google and social networking such as Facebook and Linkedin. Although, EBay's model is a social networking model based on thesis published in the "Cluetrain Manifesto"  (The Book is now offered for free.)


Commentary: Profitability is a challenge and impacts every aspect of an operation. The business minded must keep a constant vigil. In terms of project management, many of the models dove tail into project managment paradigms with the two major methodologies as PMI's and continuous improvement.  Practices overlap between the two methodologies. However, the project manager in both respects must wear an entrepenurial hat. Understanding how a business makes money can strengthen a project managers efforts immensely. Especially, as the project manager moves more into strategic and C-level projects.   

Reference:

Slywotzky, A (2002) The Art of Profitability, Warner Business Books, New York.

Argumentation: Language, Style and Evidence

Argumentation: The Study of Effective Reasoning

Commentary: This is a series on effective reasoning as it applies to project management. Using proper argumentation in a project while vetting risk, options, objectives, strategies, and workaround solutions can strengthen a project's performance, improve communications, and develop a sense of unity. Effective argumentations comes down to building the strongest case for a claim. In this series I will be summarizing points made by David Zarefsky in his Teaching Company coursework as well as drawing on other resources.   This series of posts may be reviewed at the Argumentation Series Posts link.  

This post will combine what would have been two post. The reason for this is they are related and also brief by themselves. I will be compressing many of the posts to move through this series more quickly.

Language and Style in Argumentation

The bottom line up front is that language is a resource as methods of composition and persuasion are not neutral. Arguments are cast in language as an intrinsic aspect which has strategic value. One resource for the arguer are definitions. Definitions server many purposes as they characterize common usage, make the vague more precise, and can be used to invent new usages.

The pervasive definition is of special interest to argumentation. The pervasive definition slants the argument to gain strategic as well as tactical advantage. This is usually accomplished by associating a stasis term with descriptive terms that cast either a positive or negative connotation. However, it can be also performed during the argument as well. The idea is to transfer emotional capital from one denotation to another. Some pervasive definition examples are the death tax, the nuclear option, and partial-birth abortion. The practice can also be used to alter the scope of a conflict including or excluding participants. For example, the would-be loser or the disenfranchised voters.

There are some general concerns about the use of Definitions. They should be clear enough to avoid fallacies. Linguistic precision should be concise enough to convey intent and avoid undesirable meanings. Figures of speech can be strategically used. There are nuances that must be understood and leveraged during the argument.

Some nuances to avoid common fallacies center on several faux pas stemming from language inexactness that include equivocation, ambiguity, amphiboly, vagueness, heaps and slippery slopes. These are conditions peculiar to informal argumentation.

Linguistical precision has strategic implications. The arguer may choose the degree to which the language is precise. In this way, the arguer manages maneuvering room for himself and limits maneuvering room of the opponent. Some common techniques include using euphemisms, ambiguity, and vagueness to create maneuvering room. Increasing precision by labeling, making analogies, and the use of descriptive terms may narrow or limit the opponents maneuvering room.

Figures of speech can be used to increase the presence of a concept and highlight a choice among alternatives. The use of analogies, metaphors, and similes tend to increase presence. Other techniques to increase presence include repetition, accumulation of facts and details, as well as accent. Whereas the use of antithesis and metaphors present choices. Arguers may find that coupling these techniques to activities and experiences of the audience improves their effectiveness.

Language is not some sort of ornamentation but part of the argument affecting strategic positions and interest of the participating parties. Specifically, context and perspectives of the argument are affected.

Commentary: The use of language is very important as much more can be conveyed than what is in simple phonetic terms. Tone, preciseness, and action are perhaps more critical than terms. The context of the verbage is also crucial. In writing there are over 200 rhetorical instruments such as metaphors,  euphenisms, similies, etc... that can convey greater meaning. Project managers should learn the strategic use of words and carefully use them especially when working with contracts, purchase orders, and other legally binding activities.  Overall language can make or break a justification, objective, or goal.

Evaluating the Evidence

Evidence represents the grounds for the claim and is the answer to how do you know or what do you have to go on. The evidence must be accepted by all parties or the argument stops until the matter of evidential adequacy resolved.  Adequacy may be agreed technical rules but most commonly the test is what a critical audience will accept. A speech-act philosophy provides an operational definition of "providing evidence".  The basic principle of willingly and feely accepting a claim  is conditioned upon truths that are conveyed by a speaker. The listener hears this and then if accepted, accepts the claim.

Evidence can be grouped into common types such as examples, statistical, tangible objects, testimony, and social consensus.    Examples include brief mentions, illustrations, and generalizations. Statisitics can be raw numbers, ratios, central tendencies such as means, averages, modes, and medians, probabilities, and/or rates. Any statisitical evidence is subject ot review of the process in orer to determine its accuracy and validity. Tangible objects are atifacts associated to the claim and support the addage that a picture is worth a thousand  words. Testimony of facts or credible opinion by experts who are qualified and reliable in the matter at hand is  accepted based on the source credibility.  Credibility is derived from experience, eye witness account, or a hostory of success. A social consensus functions as if beliefs are fact. This can be characterized by common knowledge or shared value judgments and history. Any differences in any of these requires resolution of the matter between any truth can be accepted.

Commentary: As pointed to in the discussion evidence is the support for a claim. However, evidence is subject to truths which can be a challenge. Worldviews determine a truth's strength. Every truth has a virtue, essence, and being and falls within a range from the epistemic to the correspondant. Understanding the audience and how they formulate truths will aid in resolving truth issues over the evidence. This in itself can be a challenge as ones own sense of truth can conflict. For the Project manager is a ethical delimna and the project manager should always take the high road.

References:

Zarefsky, D. (2005) Argumentation: the study of effective reasoning. 2nd Ed. the Teaching Company. Chantilly, VA