Case Construction Requirements and Options

Argumentation: The Study of Effective Reasoning

Commentary: This is a series on effective reasoning as it applies to project management. Using proper argumentation in a project while vetting risk, options, objectives, strategies, and workaround solutions can strengthen a project's performance, improve communications, and develop a sense of unity. Effective argumentations comes down to building the strongest case for a claim. In this series I will be summarizing points made by David Zarefsky in his Teaching Company coursework as well as drawing on other resources.   This series of posts may be reviewed at the Argumentation Series Posts link.

The last several posts developed the structure of an argument and the language behind argumentation. These posts were supplemented with a variety of supporting briefs that could be used by project managers. This post will focus on the construction and argumentation patterns. Understanding argumentation construction will allow project managers to develop well designed arguments.

Argumentation Case Construction Requirements and Options

A case for an argument is the structure of subsidiary claims and evidence selected for supporting or opposing a resolution for a specific audience. Constructing a case involves choices from a broader range of arguments that are potentially available. The choices include selecting an argument and supporting evidence then their arrangement which tends to be audience specific. Usually there is a target audience and a broader audience in mind. The choices made combine some creativity with a degree of constraint which is the need to address all the issues in the resolution.

When assembling an argument, arguers must address all the issues raised by a claim. An aid to identifying the issues is the concept of "Topoi" meaning stock issues or literally places. Topoi are patterns of issues that reoccur for given claim types and situations that offer a shortcut to locating issues in a given case.  By classifying a resolution, we can determine the Topoi and the general questions associated, Table 1.

TOPOI QUESTIONS BY RESOLUTION
Resolution Types	Topoi
Fact	What is the criterion for assessing truth? Has the criterion been satified?
Definition	In the interpretation relevant? Is it fair? How should we choose among competing interpretations?
Value	Is the value truly good or bad as alleged? Which among competing values should be preferred? Has the value been properly applied to the specific sutuation?
Policy	Is the a problem? Where is credit or blame due? Will the proposal solve the problem? On balance, will the proposal be better?

Table 1: Topoi by Resolution

The arguer, advocate, or supporter must provide the initial burden of proof that is compelling in the absence of any response. This is accomplished by answering the Topoi for the given resolution type.  After this burden of proof is met then a burden of rejoinder begins. This is the responsibility to maintain the conversation and analogous to the production burden in law. The rejoinder is typically a back and forth dialogue between the arguers in which the trigger to switch is when the resolution is met. The rejoinder prevents the argument from terminating and previous positions from reoccurring without extending them to answer subsequent challenges.

The key considerations during case construction are how many arguments to include and whether those arguments are strong enough to support the case. The number and range of arguments, known as amplitude, is affected by more factors than time to prepare. Increasing amplitude can offset inconclusiveness of individual arguments and hedge against diverse audiences. The risks of increasing amplitude may affect credibility and demonstrate a defensive posture damaging the arguer's acceptance by the audience. Nonetheless, with diligence these risks can be marginalized. Strength is a function of the audience's adherence to the evidence and the relevance to the claims. Strength factors are influenced by probability, timing, and acceptance by social morays.

Organizing individual arguments is also important and requires choices to be made regarding logical indifferences and rhetorical significance. The first choice is the arguments structure as parallel, convergent, or series. The next choice is to determine where to place the strength in the argument; first or last. Then the arguer should begin to anticipate questions answering the Topoi questions first then other objections that are known to the particular claims made.  Finally, the arguer should formulate a strategy of how to move between the unfamiliar and familiar.   Overall, the independent arguments have common organizational patterns.

• Chronological
• Spatial Order
• Categorical
• Cause - Effect
• Problem - Solution
• Comparisons or Contrasted
• Method Residuals

In conclusion, arguers must critically think though their arguments then structure the argument giving it the proper strength and amplitude. In doing so, the many basic questions can be answered quickly and the crux of the argument can be discussed more readily. 

Commentary:  In making choices, a degree of restraint is just as important as constraints and creativity. The potential for abuse in argumentation can be problematic as there is a tendency to structure arguments deceptively on topics less than truthful or that do not uphold ethical integrity. In some cases, the arguer unknowingly may be deceived due to innate biases and a high degree of confidence in a personal belief.  Epistemology is the study of the limits and limitations of knowledge and truth. Epistemic truths are logically ordered and are generally based on a 'good' set of assumptions.  The audience must agree with those assumptions in order for the claim to be accepted. Therefore, the arguer must adhere to a set of social morays, beliefs, and limited inferential leaps in order to successfully argue.

Next weeks post will look at the focal point of the dispute.

References:

Zarefsky, D. (2005) Argumentation: the study of effective reasoning. 2nd Ed. the Teaching Company. Chantilly, VA.